Earth system history /
Guardado en:
| Autor principal: | |
|---|---|
| Formato: | Desconocido |
| Lenguaje: | Español |
| Publicado: |
New York :
W. H. Freeman,
2009
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| Edición: | 1st. pub. |
| Materias: | |
| Aporte de: | Registro referencial: Solicitar el recurso aquí |
Tabla de Contenidos:
- Part 1. Materials, processes and principles. 1. Earth as a System. Exploring the Earth system
- Earth is special
- The components of the system are interrelated
- The system is fragile
- The principle of actualism
- Catastrophism versus actualism in the nineteenth century
- The nature and origin of rocks
- Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks can form from one another
- Bodies of rock are classified into formal units
- steno's three principles concern sedimentary rocks
- The rock cycle relates all kinds of rocks to one another
- Global dating of the rock record
- Fossils and physical marker indicate relative ages of rocks
- Radioactive decay provides actual ages of rocks
- The geologic time scale divides Earth's history into formal units - Intervals of the geologic time scale are distinctive
- Imaging Earth below
- Earth's density increases with depth
- Solid plates of ithosphere move over the slushlike asthenosphere
- Plate tectonics
- Plates spread apart where they form,, slide past one another and eventually sink
- Heat from radioactive decay fires the engine of plate tectonics
- Plumes of magma rise into the crust from deep within the mantle
- Plate tectonics plays a role in the rock cycle
- The water cycle
- Water moves between reservoirs
- The water cycle and te rock cycle are inseparable
- Directional change in Earth's history
- Evolution reshapes life drastically and irreversible
- Physical and chemical feature of Earth have also changed
- Life and environments have changed in concert
- Episodic change in Earth's history
- Sedimentarion occurs in pulses
- Deposition can be catastrophic
- Unconformities represent large breaks in the rock record
- Life on Earth has experienced pulses of change
- 2. Rock-Forming Minerals and Rocks. Visual overwiew: rocks and their origins
- The structure of minerals
- An element consists of a unique kink of atom
- Isotopes of an eement have distinctive atomic weights
- Chemical reactions produce minerals
- Chemical reactions create chemical bonds
- Crystals have three-dimensional molecular structures
- Ions of an element can substitute for ions of another element
- The properties of minerals
- chemical bonds determine hardness
- The weight and packing of atoms determine density
- Fracture patterns reflect crystal structure
- Minerals and rocks form under particular physicochemical conditions
- A few families of minerals form most rocks
- Types of rocks
- Igneous rocks form when molten rock cools
- Sedimentary rocks form from particles that settle through water or air
- Metamorphic rocks forms from other rocks al high temperatures and pressures
- 3. The Diversity of Life. Visual overvies: The six kingdoms
- Fossils and chemical remains of ancient life
- Hard parts are the most commonly preserve features of animals
- Soft parts of animals are rarely preserved
- Permineralizaiton produces petrified wood
- Molds and impressions are imprints
- Trace fossils are records of movement
- The quality of the fossil record is highl variable
- Biomarkers are useful indicators of life
- Dead organism decay to form fossil fuels
- Taxonomic groups
- Identifying clades and their relationshps
- Archaea and bacteria: the two domains of prokaryotes
- Archaea tolerate hostile environments
- Bacteria include decomposers, cause of disease and polluters
- The protists: a kingdom consisting mainly of single-celled organisms
- The fungi: a kingdom of decomposeers
- Plants: multicellular photosynthesizers with tissues
- Seedless vascular plants came first
- Seed plants invaded dry land
- Animals
- Songes: a phylum of simple invertebrates
- Cnidarians: a phylum that includes the corals
- Lophotrochozoans include most kinds of animals that lack skeletons
- Ecdsozoans
- Deuterostomes include stafishes and their relatives as well as vertebrates
- 4.Environments and Life. The distribution of environments and life on Earth
- Principles of ecology
- A species niche is its position in the environment
- A community of organism and its environment form an ecosystem
- Biogeography concerns broad patterns of ocrrence
- The atmosphere
- Nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide constitute most of the atmosphere
- Tempertaure variations and Earth's rotation govern circulation in the atmosphere
- The terrestrial realm
- Vegetation patterns parallel climatic zones
- Climates change with elevation
- Land and water influence seasonal temperature change
- Fossil plants reflect ancient climatic conditions
- The marine realm
- Winds drive ocean currents
- Marine life varies with water depth
- Marine life floats, swims or occupies the seafloor
- Water temperature influences biogeographic patterns
- Salinity is an important limiting factor near shore
- Freshwater envoronments
- 5. Sedimentary Environments. Depositional environments and accumulation of sediments
- Nonmarine environments
- Ancient soils can point to past climatic conditions - Freshwater lakes and glaciers leave clues to ancient climates
- Deserts and ard basins accumulates salt and sand
- Braided and meandering rivers deposit sediment in moist regions
- Marginal marine and open-shelf
- Environments
- A delta forms where a river meets the sea
- Lagoons lie behind barrier islands of sand
- Open-shelf deposits include tempestites
- Fossils serve as indicators of marine environments
- Organic reefs are bodies of carbonate rock
- Carbonate platforms form in warm seas
- Deep-sea environments
- Turbidites flow down submarine slopes
- Pelagic sediments are fine-graines and accumulate slowly
- 6. Correlation and Dating of the Rock Record. Methods of stratigraphic correlation
- The geologic time scale
- Fossil succession reveals the relative ages of rocks
- Geologic systems were founded in the ninteenth century
- Stratigraphic units
- The rock record is divided into time-rock units and geologic time into time units
- Biostratigraphic units are based on fossil occurrences
- Magnetic stratigraphy identifies polarity time-rock units
- Rock units are fefined by lithology, not age
- Earth's absolute age
- Early geoligists underestimated Earth's antiquity
- Radioactive decay rovides absolute ages of rocks
- Fossils often provide more accurate correlation than isotopic dating
- Changes in stable isotopes permit global correlation
- Event stratigraphy
- Marker beds allow correlation over wide areas
- Back-and-forth shifting of facies boundaries creates marker beds
- Unconformities can be detected by seismic stratigraphy
- Sequences record vhanges in sea level
- Changes in Earth's rotation create-geologic clocks
- 7. Evolution and the Fossil Record. The evolution of life
- Adaptations - Charles Darwin's contribution
- The voyage of the Beagle provided geographic evidence
- Darwin's anatomical evidence sas broadly based
- Natural selection is the mechanism of evolution
- Genes, DNA and chromosomes s-- Regulatory genes and patterns of development - Populations, species and speciation
- Horizontal gene transfer
- Rates of origination
- The molecular clock and times of origination
- Evolutionary convergence
- Extinction
- Rates of extinction vary gratly
- a mass extinction is occurring today
- Evolutionary trands
- Animals tend to evolve toward larger body size
- Evolutionary trends
- Animals tend to evolve toward larger body size
- Evolutionary trends can be simple or complex
- Evolution is irreversible
- 8. The Theory of Plate Tectonics. Elements of plate tectonics
- The history of continental drift theory
- Some early observations were misinterpreted
- Alfred Wegeneer was a twentieth-century pioneer
- Alexander Du Toit focused on the Gondwana seqence
- Continental drift was widely rejected
- Paleonmagnetism shwed puzzling patterns - The rise of plate tectonics
- Seafloor spreading explaines many phenomena
- Paleomagnetism provided a definitive test - Faulting and volcanism along plate voundaries
- Oceanic crust forms along mid-ocean ridges
- Transform fults offset mid-ocean ridges
- Lithorphere is subducted along deep-sea trenches
- Plate movements
- Plates move for four reasons
- Free slabs sink deep into the mantle
- Plate movements are measurable
- 9. Continental Tectonics and Mountain Chains. Formatio and deformation of continental margins
- The rifting of continents
- Hot spots give rise to three-armed rifts
- Rift valleys form wen continental breakup begins - Rifting creates passive margins - Bending and flowing of rocks
- Mountain building
- Continental collision produces orogenies
- Orogenies can occur without continental collision
- Mountain belts have a characteristic structure
- Compressive forces cause deformation
- The weight of a mountain belt creates a foreland basin
- The Andes exempligy mountain building without continental collision
- The Pyrenees exemplify mountain building by continental collision
- Suturing of small landsmasses to continents
- Tectonics of continental interiors
- 10. Major Geochemical Cycles. Key chemical cycles in Earth sysem history
- Chemical reservoirs
- Fluxes are rates of mvement between reservoirs - Feedbacks affect fluxes
- Carbon dioxide, oxygen and biological rocesses
- Plants employ a photosynthesis-resiration cycle
- Phtosynthesis produces tissue growth
- Respiration releases energy
- Decomposers employ respiration
- burial of plant debris alters atmospheric chemistry
- Marine cycles resemble terrestrial cycles
- Use of carbon isotopes to study global chemical cycles
- Carbon isotopes record the cycling of organic carbon
- Isotope ratios in limestones and deep-sea sediments record changes in rates of carbon burial
- Carbon and sulfur vurial enlarges the atmosphere's oxygen reservoir
- Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by wathering and ends up in imestone
- Changes in rates of wathering affect th